IT7502 Digital Ethics Feb 2023
Topic outline
-
Lecturer / Course Coordinator
Dr. Steve McKinlay. PhD, MA, BA(Hons), B.BusIt is not enough that you should understand
about applied science in order that your work
may increase man’s blessings. Concern for
man himself and his fate must always form
the chief interest of all technical endeavors.Albert Einstein
Please Note:
- Weekly interactive lecture / tutorial sessions will take place this semester on campus (Petone and Porirua) You are expected to turn up to these sessions and attendance will be taken. Please check the latest timetable for time and location. http://timetable.whitireiaweltec.ac.nz/2023/
- Don't message me using the Moodle chat/message system. I don't have it running all the time and don't check it. My work email is always open on my desktop. Please use that.
- In addition, each week there are 1 or more readings, PowerPoint slides (which mirror the lectures), sometimes podcasts and TED talks, a quiz to complete which opens reflection/revision questions (tutorial work).
- A comment about ChatGPT and other LLM AI apps. Material generated by LLMs (including but not limited to ChatGPT) is treated the same as any other sourced material. That is, if you use anything generated by these AI apps must be properly cited and listed in your references using APA guidelines. If you fail to properly cite it and are caught it will be treated as Academic Dishonesty under the organisations policy. Please note, that I do not deal with academic dishonesty, if suspected I do not grade the assessment and immediately refer it to the Head of School. You will not receive a mark for your assessment, and I will not enter into any discussions at all regarding your submission under investigation. Dishonesty investigations take considerable time, involve interviews with the head of school or programme manager and often result in zero marks for that assessment. In my experience these situations are extremely stressful for students. Please consider this carefully. Also, I hope it is not lost on students that this is a course on ethics.
-
All important course announcements will be made here.
-
____________________________________________________
-
Big Data and Democracy, Edinburgh University Press.
I have a chapter in this text which was released in June 2020, Trust and Algorithmic Opacity. Available in the library. This chapter will make up part of the discussion for the last lecture later in this course. Very relevant given recent developments in AI.
- Weekly interactive lecture / tutorial sessions will take place this semester on campus (Petone and Porirua) You are expected to turn up to these sessions and attendance will be taken. Please check the latest timetable for time and location. http://timetable.whitireiaweltec.ac.nz/2023/
-
Important information
Any evidence and or cases where TurnItIn reports material has been generated by LLMs, ChatGPT or other AI based tools will not be marked and referred to the Head of School for investigation.
Essentially use of these tools will be treated the same as cut and pasted material without proper citation, or any other situations where the definition of plagiarism broadly conceived is suspected.
-
Assignment 2. Due Date - Friday 26 May (5pm), 2023
-
-
Submit your essay here. Be aware, on your third submission you will be locked out of re-submitting for 24 hours.
-
____________________________________________________
Assessment 1. (Four parts) Various dates during the semester
Assessment 1 will consist of 4 equally graded (10%) short essay assignments which will be run in Tutorial Sessions throughout the semester. 3 of these assignments will make up your final mark for Assessment 1 (30%). Your top 3 marks will be counted. Alternatively you only need sit 3 of the assessments.
The following attached document outlines exactly how this assessment will proceed. It is of critical importance that you read and understand it. Ignorance will be no excuse for missing the assessment or not completing it properly.
-
This is the assignment instructions. This document provides you with the information and instructions regarding Assessment One tasks.
The first (1 of 4) will be held in the on campus tutorial session in Week 5. These assessments can only be completed in class, on campus, in person. They will NOT be available online or at a later date.
Moderated by Dr Marta Vos, 25.02.2023 -
Please note, this assessment is the final one. The total marks for the set of 4 is 30%. So, you only need to do this if you wish to improve your best of 3 final grade, or if you missed an assessment and need a make up.
The due date is Friday 9 June, 4pm. You won't be able to submit after that date and there are no resubmissions.
-
-
Hello all,
The final assessment (online exam) will be available here from 13.00 (1pm) Monday 12 June, 2023. It is a 3 hour exam + 10 Minute Reading Time. You must submit your final assessment by 16.10 (10 minutes past 4pm, Monday 12 June).
Please read this very carefully BEFORE attempting the final assessment.
This final assessment is a controlled assessment. The format is the same as a traditional exam however, it is online and you will have to be submit your final work to TurnItIn. I will not accept or even open emailed assessments.
The assessment is controlled therefore, IT MUST BE COMPLETED during the allocated time. Late submission will NOT be possible. Once the time period expires you will not be able to submit.
You may have one A4 (double sided) sheet with your course work notes (typed or handwritten is ok).
Any evidence that you have used ChatGPT, a LLM or any form of AI to answer your questions will not be marked and forwarded to the Head of School for consideration as academic dishonesty.
Students that do not submit will have to apply for a Further Assessment Attempt under the institutes policy, and you can only be awarded 50% maximum. There can be no extensions. Treat this in the same way you would treat an exam. The assessment will become available at the time mentioned above.
Be aware, there are some TurnItIn variations with your submission. Once you are satisfied with your assessment you must submit it to TurnItIn (the link is below). However, unlike assignments you will only get ONE opportunity to submit. Once submitted you will not be able to resubmit. A similarity report will not be generated. So, TAKE EVERY PRECAUTION NOT TO CUT AND PASTE ANYTHING. Cut and pasted material will NOT be marked. Do not email me asking me to resubmit.
The assessment will be made up of 10 short/medium essay style questions.
You need to write as full and complete answers as possible. I expect two or three paragraphs for each answer. Minimal answers will get minimal marks.
What am I looking for in your answer? You need to adequately demonstrate your understanding of the topic. The more you show this, the better marks you will get.
With the exception of Question 10 (See below), ALL questions are drawn from the Revision / Reflection Questions and the Weekly Topic summaries in Moodle.
-
Final Assessment Question 10
Question 10 will relate the my recent book chapter Trust and Algorithmic Opacity - you can access the article in Topic 12 here in Moodle. There will be two options to choose from, you must select one question and answer that. Answer only 1 (one) question from the two options.
- The first option relates to the concept of Algorithmic Opacity.
- The second option relates to bias in machine learning algorithms.
You will need to read my chapter in order to understand these issues, in order to answer the question. Your answer must relate to the discussion in the paper Trust and Algorithmic Opacity.
-
You must submit by the due date / time (Monday, 12 June, 2023, 4.10 pm). After this time submission will not be possible.
You can only submit once. You will not be able to resubmit.
Similarity reports will NOT be generated. Plagiarism / Cut and Pasted material will not be marked. All writing MUST be your own. -
Moderated by Dr. Marta Vos.
You can answer the exam questions in the MS Word Document and submit that to TurnItIn when complete.
-
-
-
-
Steve's summary notes for Chapter one of the Tavani text. (No replacement for the actual text, but they may help).
-
This podcast is on Walter Maner's Uniqueness Debate in Computer Ethics. It elaborates on Maner's argument. Have a listen to this after our first lecture/tutorial session.
-
Shannon Vallor is a colleague and friend of mine originally from San Jose California she now works at The University of Edinburgh, Scotland. She has produced a very good introduction to Data Ethics (which forms a subset of Digital Ethics. As a minimum, I'd like everyone to read from page 2 through to page 14.
-
Receive a grade
You must successfully answer all the quiz questions to unlock the Intro to Digital Ethics Revision Questions. Remember all exam questions will be either drawn directly or based upon each sections Revision Questions. You can attempt the quiz any number of times.
Time Estimate to Complete - 10 Mins
-
Revision/Reflection Questions for Topic 1 Introduction to Digital Ethics. Page
I expect students to have read the prescribed readings (at least) and have at least considered responses to these questions. The final exam will be made up of questions very similar to the weekly tutorial reflection questions. Please note, I will not be providing answers to any of these questions. It is up to you to discover the answers in the prescribed readings.
-
These are not "required" readings, however they are very pertinent to the topic this week and if you are comfortable reading more then I recommend. Foundational Papers on Computer ethics and the Uniqueness debate.
-
-
Utilitarianism.
At a meta level, ethics is a more abstract consideration of moral evaluation. Over the next few weeks we look at the three most popular normative ethical theories. We consider the question, are there any universal principles to which we might appeal that help us negotiate particular ethical issues (or dilemmas) that we may face. What might those principles look like and are they desirable in ethical deliberation and human development? What shortcomings might those principles have?
Thus, before we can make ethical judgements it is useful to understand some of the most popular ethical theories. This week we consider one of the most influential ethical theories, Utilitarianism (sometimes called consequentialism), is an ethical theory which attempts to defend universal principles which focus upon the outcomes (or consequences) of our actions and decisions as a measure of moral worth.
- Classic Utilitarianism
- What is good? Hedonistic vs. Pluralistic approaches
- Intrinsic and Instrumental Value
- Objections to Utilitarianism.
- Not everything is an "ethical dilemma"
- Classic Utilitarianism
-
Readings for Topic 2 (and what you need to do this week)
Attend on campus lecture/tutorial
Podcasts, Powerpoint slides, Complete the quiz and open the revision questions.
Attendance: Will be recorded based on attendance at the on campus classes and the Moodle engagement.
Essential Reading : The Stanford Encyclopedia pages on Utilitarianism, sections 1, 2 3 (link below).
About 20-30 mins reading time, Complexity Level 3/5Media Article of the Week - Forget Robots Taking Jobs, Researchers Compare AI to Fire. (Complexity level 2/5)
Supplementary Reading : (not essential but helpful, is contained in the Supplementary Readings / Podcasts Download folder below)
-
Utilitarianism Part 1 - Podcast. (22 Mins)
Consequentialism, what is "good" and preference satisfaction. -
Utilitarianism Part 2 - Podcast (30 Mins)
Act and Rule Utilitarianism, objections and criticisms, ethical dilemmas and trolley problems. -
View
The Stanford University's Encyclopedia of Philosophy is a brilliant resource for all the ethical theories.
It was started by a scholar Ed Zalta whom I was lucky enough to meet at a conference at Stanford University a few years back.Far better than wikipedia and, also, I consider this a "quality resource" when it comes to your assignments so you are welcome to cite from here.
This is a very good and comprehensive overview of Utilitarianism (and consequentialism from a broader perspective). Reading Section 1 and 2 will give you a very good base knowledge of Utilitarianism. -
Peter Singers's Ethics - One of the worlds most prominent utilitarians.
-
Receive a grade
You must successfully answer all the quiz questions to unlock the Utilitarian Revision Questions. Remember all exam questions will be either drawn directly or based upon each sections Revision Questions. You can attempt the quiz any number of times.
Time Estimate to Complete - 10 Mins
-
Revisions/Reflection Questions for Topic 2 - Utilitarianism Page
Remember 1 or more of these questions will be in the final exam. You must successfully complete the quiz to unlock the questions.
-
A short introduction to Utilitarianism
-
-
-
Duty Based Ethics - Deontological/Kantian Ethics
In contrast to Utilitarianism and consequentialist ethics, Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, developed a rationalistic duty based (deontological) ethics. Kant's ethics of duty was based upon the idea that the moral value of a particular act, or indeed any moral principle must be based upon unconditional respect for autonomous rational agents (humans, or AI robots perhaps?) and has little to do with the consequences of that act. Kantian ethics has been extremely influential even though it remains controversial within moral philosophical (as well as various applied) contexts.
This week we will explore Kantian ethics and consider objections and criticisms of it.- Kant's Moral Philosophy and Universal Law
- Categorical and Hypothetical Imperatives
- The concept of Intrinsic value
- Autonomy and Duty
- Objections to Duty Based Ethics
To be fair, Kantian ethics is quite hard. It involves some fairly complex philosophical and metaethical concepts. However, we'll try to keep it reasonably simple drawing upon the main concepts and trying to apply them to cases.
-
A very good primer from Stanford Uni's Philosophical Encyclopedia (Way better than Wikipedia).
-
Complexity Level - 3/5
-
The Sandel Lecture on Kantian Ethics
-
My Immanuel Kant finger puppet. Gifted to me by a Regensburg University, Digital Ethics student in 2018.
Because, I like to show how my lectures are relevant to real life.
-
You must successfully answer all the quiz questions to unlock the Intro to Digital Ethics Revision Questions. Remember all exam questions will be either drawn directly or based upon each sections Revision Questions. You can attempt the quiz any number of times.
Time Estimate to Complete - 10 Mins
-
Kantian (Deontological Ethics) Revision Questions Page
-
A nice short introduction to Kantian Ethics (Deontology)
-
-
-
Virtue Ethics
This week we will explore the last of the three most influential normative ethical theories, Virtue Ethics. Again, Virtue Ethics contrasts with Kantian and Utilitarian ethics in that it ignores rules, consequences and duties and focuses on the character of the actor herself. The central question of Virtue Ethics is what makes a person's character good (or bad) in the context of an ethical action or decision. Thus, rather than considering "it is my duty to help this person" (duty based), or "helping this person would maximise the general wellbeing of everyone" (consequentialism), the virtue ethicist would argue that helping this person is charitable or benevolent and therefore, is the right thing to do.
As per previous weeks, we will explore Virtue Ethics, it's terms and principles and consider some objections.
- The Virtues
- Practical wisdom and Eudamonia
- Agent based and Exemplarist approaches
- Target based and Platonic variations on Virtue Ethics (time permitting)
- Objections to Virtue Ethics
-
Virtue Ethics Podcast 1. Introduction to Virtue Ethics and Practical Wisdom
(recorded in 2020, ignore any administrative information) -
Virtual Ethics Podcast 2. Variations on the Theory and Objections
-
I recommend reading sections
1.0 Preliminaries
1.1 Virtue
1.2 Practical Wisdom
-
A nice introduction to Virtue Ethics.
-
Receive a grade
You must successfully answer all the quiz questions to unlock the Virtue Ethics Revision Questions. Remember all exam questions will be either drawn directly or based upon each sections Revision Questions. You can attempt the quiz any number of times.
Time Estimate to Complete - 10 Mins
-
Virtue Ethics - Revision and Reflection Questions Page
Time Estimate to Complete - 1hr 30 mins.
-
-
Professional Ethics
The previous few weeks we have looked at the meta-ethical theories, Utilitarianism, Deontology, and Virtue Ethics. From now on we get a lot more "applied". We begin to look at topics within IT and technology where ethical issues arise. So, this week we introduce the topic. What is professional ethics, what is professional responsibility, as professionals should we be held to a higher level of ethical account, why do we have codes of conduct, what is whistle-blowing and is it permissible, if so when? How should we think of ethics in relation to safety critical software and we look at notions of responsibility. If a team of programmers creates some life-critical software and it fails, who is responsible?
This chapter will be based primarily on Herman Tavani's text Ethics and Technology, Chapter 4, this was the required text for this course. This chapter is the required reading for this week. Estimated Time - Give yourself a couple of hours. I suggest breaking it up into several parts.
Indication of topics;- Gotterbarn's conception of professional ethics
- Codes of ethics in computing/IT
- Whistleblowing Safety critical software and computer malfunction - legal liability
- Nissenbaum's notion of accountability
-
Professional Ethics Podcasts
I've made these available, but just be aware they were made during lock downs - All the dates and admin information will probably be wrong.
Professional Ethics - Podcast 1 (What is a professional, and safety critical software) - 12 Mins -
Professional Ethics - Podcast 2 (Codes of Ethics and Whistle Blowing) - 15 Mins
-
Professional Ethics - Podcast 3 (Accountability and Ethical Risk Assessment) - 17 Mins
-
These are my lecture notes which summarise Chapter 4 of the Tavani text. Be aware this is a summary, not really a substitute for reading the chapter, but I am making them available incase they help.
-
Receive a grade
This one is a little harder. However, ALL the answers can be found in Tavani Chapter 4, and in the Topic Content for this week.
You must successfully answer all the quiz questions to unlock the Professional Ethics Revision Questions. Remember all exam questions will be either drawn directly or based upon each sections Revision Questions. You can attempt the quiz any number of times.
Time Estimate to Complete - 10-15 Mins
-
Professional Ethics Revision and Reflection Questions Page
Unlocked when you successfully complete the quiz. Remember ALL exam questions, will be taken from these questions each week. It is essential for your study to complete the quiz and consider these questions.
Estimated time to complete - Give yourself about an hour and a half.
-
There is no doubt out of all the topics in Digital Ethics that Privacy has probably received the most media attention. The concerns relate to our supposed loss of privacy, breaches of privacy and various other worries. This week we consider the topic of Privacy in some detail. We examine the claim that technology threatens our privacy more so that it did prior to the use of computers. We examine the concept of personal privacy in some detail, why is it valued so much. We look at the issue of sharing, merging, matching and mining of data across many different systems - how do these system exacerbate privacy concerns.
- What is personal privacy? (normative vs. descriptive conceptions)
- Is privacy an intrinsic value?
- Nissenbaum's theory of conceptual integrity - this will be a focus in the first set of powerpoint slides.
- Surveillance
- Data Mining and Profiling
Required reading this week. Tavani text, Chapter 5, Privacy in Cyberspace - pages 131 (beginning of the chapter) to 141 are the most important.
-
Privacy - Podcast 1 (Theories of Privacy and Nissenbaum's theory of Contextual Integrity)
Be aware that the podcasts were created last trimester and may contain invalid admin information. Ignore this. -
Privacy - Podcast 2 (Privacy, intrinsic value or something else?)
-
-
Excellent TED talk by Mikko Hypponen. Highly recommended, very enjoyable too.Living in a surveillance state: Mikko Hypponen at TEDxBrussels -
Receive a grade Receive a passing grade
-
Privacy and Cyberspace Revision and Reflection Questions Page
Unlocked when you successfully complete the quiz. Remember ALL exam questions, will be taken from these questions each week. It is essential for your study to complete the quiz and consider these questions.
Estimated time to complete - about an hour and a half.
-
A superb discussion on internet data collection by Google, FB etc. by Shoshana Zuboff.
- What is personal privacy? (normative vs. descriptive conceptions)
-
This week we consider the issue of cybersecurity. We make a distinction between cybercrime and cybersecurity. And while cybersecurity is related to privacy we also examine the linkages but important distinctions between the two. In this topic we begin to look at hacking, and the question, are there any cases where security intrusions can be justified on ethical grounds? Like privacy there are no universally agreed upon definitions of cybersecurity, however we will attempt to build a framework of security that makes sense for our purposes.
- Defining cybersecurity and how security issues involving computers differ from privacy issues
- What are violations of cybersecurity and similarities and differences from issues of cybercrime
- Issues related to cloud computing
- Hacking, hacktivism and the hacker ethics
- Cyberwarefare and cyberterrorism
Required reading this week. Shannon Vallor's Introduction to Cybersecurity Ethics
Be aware the podcasts may contain admin information related to last Trimester, please ignore this.
-
Security - Podcast (Introduction to security concepts)
-
Part 2 looks in some detail at hacking, hactivism and the ethics behind such practices. It then covers topics such as cyberterrorism, and information warfare. Finally security and how it relates to risk within organisations.
-
-
Receive a grade Receive a passing grade
-
Security in Cyberspace Reflection and Revision Questions Page
Unlocked when you successfully complete the quiz. Remember ALL exam questions, will be taken from these questions each week. It is essential for your study to complete the quiz and consider these questions.
Estimated time to complete - Give yourself about an hour and a half.
- Defining cybersecurity and how security issues involving computers differ from privacy issues
-
This topic is based on Chapter 7 of the Tavani text. This is the prescribed reading for this week. Last week the topic looked at issues surrounding security and this week we focus more specifically on crime and criminal activity in relation to IT and cybertechnology. We revisit to topic of hacking (and cracking), is there a permissible argument to be had for counter hacking or active defence hacking.
We consider jurisdictional issues, and finally we have a look at the now famous Wikileaks case. Can we make an argument in defense of Wikileaks (some say yes, others say no.)- Cybercrime as distinct from cyber-related crime
- Is active defense hacking ethically permissible?
- Wikileaks and associated cases
Previous semester podcasts are available if you like to listen to them, as well as the usual quiz and revision questions.
-
Caleb Barlow's very good (2017) TED talk on Cybercrime.
Highly Recommended! (15 mins)
-
Dr Steve's chapter summary of Tavani Chapter 7, with other notes and points.
-
Cybercrime Revisions/Reflection questions Page
Unlocked when you successfully complete the Cybercrime quiz. Remember ALL exam questions, will be taken from these questions each week. It is essential for your study to complete the quiz and consider these questions.
Estimated time to complete - Give yourself about an hour and a half.
-
The focus this week is based on Tavani text to Chapter 10 on the Digital Divide, Democracy and Work. The digital divide represents a significant ethical issue within computing and technology and addresses issues of access to technology and the internet.
The ethical issues correspondent to these categories relate to issues of social equity, and access to information and technology. In analysing the issues around the digital divide we consider groups such as disabled people, racial minorities, women and also older people that are less likely to have access to the internet or perhaps are less capable of accessing information this way. Some of the questions we consider are ;- What do we mean by the digital divide? And why is it controversial?
- Do we have special obligations to some of the groups mentioned above?
- Has the use of cybertechnology in particular social media helped reduce racism or does it exacerbate it?
- What implications does technology have for gender issues?
- Why does such bias and stereotyping exist in computer gaming
- Does technology facilitate (or threaten) democracy and democratic values?
- How is technology changing the way we work, how does this affect our quality of life, what ethical issues are associated with this?
The required reading - Powerpoints 1 and 2, various readings below.-
A great TED talk by Aleph Molinari, explaining the Digital Divide. Highly recommended.
(9 mins 45 sec)
-
Steve's chapter summary of Tavani, Chapter 10.
-
Keep in mind I created this last Trimester. As such, please ignore dates, admin material. Just focus on the content.
-
Easier quiz this week, only 3 questions to unlock the revision questions. The main focus is on the Digital Divide. All the answers are in the online material provided.
-
Digital Divide Revision/Reflection Questions Page
Unlocked when you successfully complete the quiz. Remember ALL exam questions, will be taken from these questions each week. It is essential for your study to complete the quiz and consider these questions.
Estimated time to complete - Give yourself about an hour and a half.
-
A nice short article on racial bias in algorithms, sort of related to this topics this week.
-
Paper discussed in class / powerpoint slides, by Ariadna Matamoros-Fernández and Johan Farkas (2021).
-
This week we look at Chapter 12 in the Tavani text, Ethical Aspects of Emerging and Converging Technologies" in addition the topics of AI Value Alignment and Trust and AI are covered.
The material for this topic is split across 2 weeks.
We look at the topic of technological convergence, what does is mean, how does it apply to technology. Ambient intelligence is discussed, we examine the topic and consider the ethical and social implications. This is considered in light of Benthamn's Panopticon. The problem of Machine dependance is also discussed.
- Ethical issues related to emerging technology, machine dependance and artificial intelligence (AI) are at the core of this topic.
- Autonomy, what is an autonomous system? What is meant by the term "functional autonomy"?
- Issues around autonomous machines and trust. What does it mean to trust AI or autonomous systems.
- AI Value Alignment. This has become an important topic in the Ethics of AI recently. What does it mean, what are the ethical implications. Should we be concerned about AI, if so why and what are the possible problems arising
- Finally we try to propose an ethical framework to help guide research and inform policies affecting new and emerging technology in particular autonomous machines.
-
-
Link to Tuesday (16.5.23) recorded Zoom session here - Topic 10 Emerging and Converging Technology
-
E.M. Forsters cautionary tale about machine dependancy from 1909. A fascinating provocative short movie.
-
Emerging Tech - Revision/Reflection Questions Page
-
A current and interesting article about the potential errors that might be made by autonomous weapon systems.
-
This week we look at a recent publication of mine dealing with the topics above. The chapter is accessible for most readers and is was published in June this year in a text Big Data and Democracy through Edinburgh University Press (in the Library). There is also a podcast briefly discussing the paper. In the final exam, one question deals with some of the issues outlined in this paper. The mains topics (to study for the exam) are listed below.
- Trust and Algorithms (building on last weeks material)
- Bias and Machine Learning. Different forms of bias that can affect autonomous systems that support human decision making.
- Algorithmic Opacity - what is opacity, what different forms of opacity exist in machine learning algorithms. What are the concerns?
You will have the option between two broad short essay questions in the final exam. One relating to Algorithmic Opacity, or on on Bias and Machine Learning.
To answer the question properly you will have to have read the paper.
There is no quiz or locked revision/reflection questions this week.
-
McKinlay, S., (2020), Trust and Algorithmic Opacity, in Big Data and Democracy. Eds. Macnish and Galliott. Edinburgh University Press.
-
Remember to ignore any administrative information in this podcast. I recorded it last semester, and I supply it here on the condition that you understand that.
That said, the information about question 10 in the final exam is true. There will be a question on this topic. I will give out more information about that next week.
-
In this special topic we look at the wikileaks controversy. This issue relates to several topics within the course, Professional ethics and whistleblowing, cybercrime and security as well as privacy issues.
I will provide an overview of the topic, the people involved, and the ethical issues involved. Rather than provide specific answers or conclusions to the ethical issues raised, I pose a few questions for consideration. Some have advocated for the likes of Snowden and Assange, others have criticised their actions. I'll leave it to you to make the argument for or against.
-
Link to zoom session on Wikileaks and the Julian Assange controversy.
-